Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus Isolated from Recreational and Natural Water Bodies in Lusaka, Zambia
Keywords:
Antimicrobial resistance, Recreation, Staphylococcus aureus, Water Bodies, Zambia
Abstract
Introduction: Staphylococcus aureus is a potentially harmful human pathogen associated with both nosocomial and community-acquired infections with increasingly antibiotic resistance. Although microbial contamination of marine waters is predicted to be responsible for millions of gastrointestinal, and acute respiratory infections, and several skin infections, there is little information regarding the microbial contamination of water bodies in many Sub-Saharan countries. Therefore, this study aimed at determining the antimicrobial susceptibility of S. aureus isolated from recreational waters and natural water bodies in Lusaka, Zambia. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study with a total of 90 water samples collected from recreational and natural water bodies. To isolate S. aureus, standard microbiological methods were used while the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method was used for susceptibility testing. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus was detected by use of cefoxitin. Results: The overall results showed that there was 36.7% bacterial contamination in the waters tested. From the 90 samples collected, a total of 33 bacteria were isolated, of which 12 (36.4%) were Coagulase Negative Staphylococcus, 9 (27.2%) were S. aureus and 12 (36.4%) were non-staphylococcus species. All the isolates showed 100% resistance to penicillin G and ampicillin. The S. aureus isolates were most susceptible to chloramphenicol (88.9%), cefoxitin (88.9%), ciprofloxacin (100%), amikacin (88.9%) and gentamicin (88.9%). Only 11.1% of isolates showed phenotypic resistance to methicillin after testing against cefoxitin. Conclusion: The results from this study signify that recreational and natural water bodies in Lusaka, Zambia may be possible reservoirs of antibiotic-resistant S. aureus which may possibly be transmitted to humans when using the same waters.References
1. Otto, M. Staphylococcus colonization of the skin and antimicrobial peptides. Expert Rev Dermatol. 2010, 5, 183-195, DOI: 10.1586/edm.10.6.
2. Akanbi, O.E.; Njom, H.A.; Fri, J.; Otigbu, A.C.; Clarke, A.M. Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus Isolated from Recreational Waters and Beach Sand in Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2017, 14, DOI: 10.3390/ijerph14091001.
3. Stauber, C.E.; Walters, A.; Fabiszewski de Aceituno, A.M.; Sobsey, M.D. Bacterial contamination on household toys and association with water, sanitation and hygiene conditions in Honduras. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2013, 10, 1586-1597, DOI: 10.3390/ijerph10041586.
4. Elsergany, M.; Moussa, M.; Ahsan, A.; Khalfan, A.; Eissa, A. Exploratory study of bacterial contamination of different surfaces in four shopping malls in Sharjah, UAE. J Environ Occup Sci. 2015, 4, 101-105.
5. Nagelkerke, M.M.B.; Sikwewa, K.; Makowa, D.; de Vries, I.; Chisi, S.; Dorigo-Zetsma, J.W. Prevalence of antimicrobial drug resistant bacteria carried by in- and outpatients attending a secondary care hospital in Zambia. BMC Res Notes. 2017, 10, 378, DOI: 10.1186/s13104-017-2710-x.
6. Samutela, M.T.; Mwansa, J.C.; Kalonda, A.; Mumbula, E.M.; Kaile, T.; Marimo, C., et al. Antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates from the university teaching hospital, Lusaka, Zambia. Jour of Med Sc & Tech. 2015, 4, 19-25, https://allen.silverchair-cdn.com/allen/content_public/journal/aplm/pap/10.5858_arpa.2020-0620-oa/2/10.5858_arpa.2020-0620-oa.pdf?Expires=1630591571&Signature=NtIfGmivJj7uEYdDnJZkHLnCQsk-P2Ey~cYCEDiR9wzEFxDg9IMXHv-JJoQxSCHJ0xHlmoQdMxvbZrPvDBsFbExwje6FOCnoaCSQOsMddG12NnfHSNkMxE6BIBVg2TbRJH5PVcnr51zkAL6JbJNHk~-MO7u-3En-UeMLirUNW0pgrlbHHJ6wamg7mBbHcNBDK8u-Nl9dsrEUaj6wcRsc7qP9vf1Glh~aVbWrvShg512uhCTPvurCgTUFniLP7LmxS6TQhaz9E0HFLcyxzOuQMWreR6v32BZ2XpVpsiAphvmguc7Jtxs1dFsp2UTXr4WWyXur-m-z8DTkz9nwi0opyw__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAIE5G5CRDK6RD3PGA.
7. Levin-Edens, E.; Soge, O.O.; No, D.; Stiffarm, A.; Meschke, J.S.; Roberts, M.C. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from Northwest marine and freshwater recreational beaches. FEMS Microbiol Ecol. 2012, 79, 412-420, DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6941.2011.01229.x.
8. Gómez, P.; Casado, C.; Sáenz, Y.; Ruiz-Ripa, L.; Estepa, V.; Zarazaga, M., et al. Diversity of species and antimicrobial resistance determinants of staphylococci in superficial waters in Spain. FEMS Microbiol Ecol. 2017, 93, DOI: 10.1093/femsec/fiw208.
9. Thapaliya, D.; Hellwig, E.J.; Kadariya, J.; Grenier, D.; Jefferson, A.J.; Dalman, M., et al. Prevalence and Characterization of Staphylococcus aureus and Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus on Public Recreational Beaches in Northeast Ohio. Geohealth. 2017, 1, 320-332, DOI: 10.1002/2017gh000106.
10. CLSI. Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing. CLSI supplement M100, Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. 28th ed. Wayne, PA: Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute; 2018.
11. Adesoji, A.T.; Onuh, J.P.; Bagu, J.; Itohan, S.A. Prevalence and antibiogram study of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from clinical and selected drinking water of Dutsin-Ma, Katsina state, Nigeria. Afr Health Sci. 2019, 19, 1385-1392, DOI: 10.4314/ahs.v19i1.11.
12. Widerström, M.; Wiström, J.; Sjöstedt, A.; Monsen, T. Coagulase-negative staphylococci: update on the molecular epidemiology and clinical presentation, with a focus on Staphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus saprophyticus. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2012, 31, 7-20, DOI: 10.1007/s10096-011-1270-6.
13. Heilmann, C.; Ziebuhr, W.; Becker, K. Are coagulase-negative staphylococci virulent? Clin Microbiol Infect. 2019, 25, 1071-1080, DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2018.11.012.
14. Kahl, B.C.; Becker, K.; Löffler, B. Clinical Significance and Pathogenesis of Staphylococcal Small Colony Variants in Persistent Infections. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2016, 29, 401-427, DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00069-15.
15. Goodwin, K.D.; McNay, M.; Cao, Y.; Ebentier, D.; Madison, M.; Griffith, J.F. A multi-beach study of Staphylococcus aureus, MRSA, and enterococci in seawater and beach sand. Water Res. 2012, 46, 4195-4207, DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2012.04.001.
16. Ashnagar, A.; Naseri, N.G. Analysis of three penicillin antibiotics (ampicillin, amoxicillin and cloxacillin) of several Iranian pharmaceutical companies by HPLC. E-Journal of Chemistry. 2007, 4, 536-545.
2. Akanbi, O.E.; Njom, H.A.; Fri, J.; Otigbu, A.C.; Clarke, A.M. Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus Isolated from Recreational Waters and Beach Sand in Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2017, 14, DOI: 10.3390/ijerph14091001.
3. Stauber, C.E.; Walters, A.; Fabiszewski de Aceituno, A.M.; Sobsey, M.D. Bacterial contamination on household toys and association with water, sanitation and hygiene conditions in Honduras. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2013, 10, 1586-1597, DOI: 10.3390/ijerph10041586.
4. Elsergany, M.; Moussa, M.; Ahsan, A.; Khalfan, A.; Eissa, A. Exploratory study of bacterial contamination of different surfaces in four shopping malls in Sharjah, UAE. J Environ Occup Sci. 2015, 4, 101-105.
5. Nagelkerke, M.M.B.; Sikwewa, K.; Makowa, D.; de Vries, I.; Chisi, S.; Dorigo-Zetsma, J.W. Prevalence of antimicrobial drug resistant bacteria carried by in- and outpatients attending a secondary care hospital in Zambia. BMC Res Notes. 2017, 10, 378, DOI: 10.1186/s13104-017-2710-x.
6. Samutela, M.T.; Mwansa, J.C.; Kalonda, A.; Mumbula, E.M.; Kaile, T.; Marimo, C., et al. Antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates from the university teaching hospital, Lusaka, Zambia. Jour of Med Sc & Tech. 2015, 4, 19-25, https://allen.silverchair-cdn.com/allen/content_public/journal/aplm/pap/10.5858_arpa.2020-0620-oa/2/10.5858_arpa.2020-0620-oa.pdf?Expires=1630591571&Signature=NtIfGmivJj7uEYdDnJZkHLnCQsk-P2Ey~cYCEDiR9wzEFxDg9IMXHv-JJoQxSCHJ0xHlmoQdMxvbZrPvDBsFbExwje6FOCnoaCSQOsMddG12NnfHSNkMxE6BIBVg2TbRJH5PVcnr51zkAL6JbJNHk~-MO7u-3En-UeMLirUNW0pgrlbHHJ6wamg7mBbHcNBDK8u-Nl9dsrEUaj6wcRsc7qP9vf1Glh~aVbWrvShg512uhCTPvurCgTUFniLP7LmxS6TQhaz9E0HFLcyxzOuQMWreR6v32BZ2XpVpsiAphvmguc7Jtxs1dFsp2UTXr4WWyXur-m-z8DTkz9nwi0opyw__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAIE5G5CRDK6RD3PGA.
7. Levin-Edens, E.; Soge, O.O.; No, D.; Stiffarm, A.; Meschke, J.S.; Roberts, M.C. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from Northwest marine and freshwater recreational beaches. FEMS Microbiol Ecol. 2012, 79, 412-420, DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6941.2011.01229.x.
8. Gómez, P.; Casado, C.; Sáenz, Y.; Ruiz-Ripa, L.; Estepa, V.; Zarazaga, M., et al. Diversity of species and antimicrobial resistance determinants of staphylococci in superficial waters in Spain. FEMS Microbiol Ecol. 2017, 93, DOI: 10.1093/femsec/fiw208.
9. Thapaliya, D.; Hellwig, E.J.; Kadariya, J.; Grenier, D.; Jefferson, A.J.; Dalman, M., et al. Prevalence and Characterization of Staphylococcus aureus and Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus on Public Recreational Beaches in Northeast Ohio. Geohealth. 2017, 1, 320-332, DOI: 10.1002/2017gh000106.
10. CLSI. Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing. CLSI supplement M100, Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. 28th ed. Wayne, PA: Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute; 2018.
11. Adesoji, A.T.; Onuh, J.P.; Bagu, J.; Itohan, S.A. Prevalence and antibiogram study of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from clinical and selected drinking water of Dutsin-Ma, Katsina state, Nigeria. Afr Health Sci. 2019, 19, 1385-1392, DOI: 10.4314/ahs.v19i1.11.
12. Widerström, M.; Wiström, J.; Sjöstedt, A.; Monsen, T. Coagulase-negative staphylococci: update on the molecular epidemiology and clinical presentation, with a focus on Staphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus saprophyticus. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2012, 31, 7-20, DOI: 10.1007/s10096-011-1270-6.
13. Heilmann, C.; Ziebuhr, W.; Becker, K. Are coagulase-negative staphylococci virulent? Clin Microbiol Infect. 2019, 25, 1071-1080, DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2018.11.012.
14. Kahl, B.C.; Becker, K.; Löffler, B. Clinical Significance and Pathogenesis of Staphylococcal Small Colony Variants in Persistent Infections. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2016, 29, 401-427, DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00069-15.
15. Goodwin, K.D.; McNay, M.; Cao, Y.; Ebentier, D.; Madison, M.; Griffith, J.F. A multi-beach study of Staphylococcus aureus, MRSA, and enterococci in seawater and beach sand. Water Res. 2012, 46, 4195-4207, DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2012.04.001.
16. Ashnagar, A.; Naseri, N.G. Analysis of three penicillin antibiotics (ampicillin, amoxicillin and cloxacillin) of several Iranian pharmaceutical companies by HPLC. E-Journal of Chemistry. 2007, 4, 536-545.
Published
2022-06-13
How to Cite
1.
Mwape L, Samutela M, Yamba K, Kalonda A. Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus Isolated from Recreational and Natural Water Bodies in Lusaka, Zambia. Journal of Agricultural and Biomedical Sciences [Internet]. 13Jun.2022 [cited 21Nov.2024];5(3):50-9. Available from: https://vet.unza.zm/index.php/JABS/article/view/751
Section
Biomedical Sciences
Copyright: ©️ JABS. Articles in this journal are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.